Topics:
St. Peter
Romanian Wedding Traditions
Economy, Food rationing, Electricity
Alcohol... kinda
St. Peter
The Eastern Orthodox
Church regards Apostle
Peter, together with Apostle Paul, as "Preeminent Apostles". Another
title used for Peter is Coryphaeus,
which could be translated as "Choir-director", or lead singer.[84] The
church recognizes Apostle Peter's leadership role in the early church, especially in the very early
days at Jerusalem, but does not consider him to have had any
"princely" role over his fellow Apostles.
The
New Testament is not seen by the Orthodox as supporting any extraordinary
authority for Peter with regard to faith or morals. The Orthodox also hold that
Peter did not act as leader at the Council of
Jerusalem, but as merely one of a number who spoke. The final decision
regarding the non-necessity of circumcision (and
certain prohibitions) was spelled out by James, the
Brother of the Lord (though
Catholics hold James merely reiterated and fleshed out what Peter had said,
regarding the latter's earlier divine revelation regarding the inclusion of
Gentiles).
Eastern
and Oriental Orthodox do not recognize the Bishop of Rome as the successor of
St. Peter but the Ecumenical
Patriarch of Constantinoplesends a delegation each year to Rome to
participate in the celebration of the feast of Sts. Peter and Paul. In the Ravenna Document of 13 October 2007, the
representatives of the Eastern Orthodox
Church agreed that
"Rome, as the Church that 'presides in love' according to the phrase of
St. Ignatius of Antioch (To the Romans, Prologue), occupied the first place in
the taxis, and that the
bishop of Rome was therefore the protos among the patriarchs, if the Papacy
unites with the Orthodox Church. They disagree, however, on the interpretation
of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the
bishop of Rome as protos,
a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first
millennium."
With
regard to Jesus' words to Peter, "Thou art Peter and upon this rock I will
build my church", the Orthodox hold Christ is referring to the confession
of faith, not the person of Peter as that upon which
he will build the church. This is allegedly shown by the fact that the original
Greek uses the feminine demonstrative pronoun when he says "upon this
rock" (ταύτῃ τῇ πέτρᾳ); whereas, grammatically, if he had been referring
to Peter, he would allegedly have used the masculine.[85] This "gender distinction"
argument is also held by some Protestants.
Weddings
The wedding is the most interesting family custom
of all. It is also a complex custom which has various traditional forms all
over the country and combines economic, law, ritual and folkloric elements. The
popular "show" is almost fabulous. The acts from the marriage
foundation are ritual and ceremonial meant to bring prosperity, fecundity,
happiness and social integration to the young family. In this moment the
popular costume gains some specific significances and the act of the ceremony
is composed from many customs: the well - wishing at the bride\'s gate, the
dowry dance in the bride\'s yard and the parents forgiveness, then the wedding
at the groom\'s house, the gifts and the bride\'s adorning.The musical
repertoire is suitable: "the dowry dance", "the big dance",
"three times around the table", "the bride\'s grief song",
"the bride\'s ring dance", "and the big ring dance".
MOLDOVA:
Moldavian marriage is a bouquet of traditions and culture. People sit together and are served with food and wine. Traditional dances also take place. In Moldova, people speak of "wedding parties" instead of just "weddings,” The wedding ceremony itself isn’t the focus of the festivities; it can be a small, understated event leading up to the wedding party proper, usually an all-night celebration.Wedding ceremonies today are held at "casa mare" or House of happiness. The modern ceremony includes the old wedding custom of bowing to the parents as a token of gratitude and respect. The traditional wedding party is magnificent in its arrangement, and intense from the moral ethical point of view. The singing and dancing continues until the daybreak. At dawn everyone sits down for a minute and the bride is given a child to hold in her arms. According to tradition, the bride will then be sure to have a home full of children. The young husband then leads her to the threshold of their house. But before they step over the threshold the couple is showered with grain - a sign of prosperity.
A Moldovian maxim says: "The person who has failed to build a home, to raise a son, to dig a well and to plant a tree has wasted his life". That\'s why the Moldovian villages are so green, the houses are so beautiful and you can see wells along the streets.
MARAMURES:
The wedding in Maramures has a unitary structure and as most important sequences, the asking-in-marriage, the "belief" (engagement) and the wedding. The secondary characters, but with a very important position within the ceremony are the "callers" to the wedding, the bridesmaids, the "socacita" (chief-cook), the "man with the larder", the musicians, the group of the lads and the wedding guests.
Taken as a whole, the ceremony is simple. A trustful person of the groom\'s part is going to the bride to ask her in marriage on the groom\'s behalf (most of the time he gets an affirmative answer only the third time), then the girl\'s dowry is discussed and the date of the engagement is set. The way to the wedding and the wedding itself contain many preparations and ritual objects, each one with its own significance. A great deal of attention is paid to the details in dressing, arranging of the table and most of all, the orders and priorities. There will exist, for example, an order for entering and coming out of the church, in serving the wedding guests, etc.
The rituals preceding every sequence or level represent the picturesque of the traditions. For example, on the night before the wedding (which is called "the flag evening") the "flagman ", accompanied by a group of lads and musicians goes to the groom\'s house with the flag. Here they start dancing a certain ritual "flag dance", with the adequate witty couplets.
The clothing also deserves a very special attention. The bride will wear a white shirt, white skirt with a white apron over it. Over the shirt she will wear a woolen sleeveless sheepskin coat and a woolen thick fleecy overcoat, tied on the waist with a red belt. The groom\'s clothing is even simpler: hempen white shirt, the sleeveless woolen sheepskin coat, and the "large pants" (or in winter time the white woolen stretch pants). The body is tied up with a broad belt with six buckles containing the knife, the tobacco, the pipe, the moneybag and other necessary small things. As a last element, in his case he also wears clinkered boots. His only decorative objects are the hand sewn cuffs, a bag over his shoulders, and he sign for being a groom - the white artificial flowers on his chest.
Emotional scenes for the relatives are the "forgiving" moments - when the bride and the groom ask for forgiveness from their parents on the account of possible former mistakes.
When the groom is going for the bride, the godfather, the "flagman" and a great deal of the wedding guests accompany him. Of all the rituals met with at the wedding ceremony, the most interesting is the one of cleaning the cheeks of the groom and bride by the mother-in-law. As this is the first time she comes to her mother-in-law\'s house the gestures may be considered as a ritual of acceptance of the bride in the new "house" (the "house" house meaning in the mentality of the peasants in Maramures the family/relatives). After the wedding, the entering of the young woman into the new category of married women implies certain beliefs and practices, like the chopping of a wood piece by one hit with an axe (in order to give birth easily) or the spinning of the wool (in order to be a good status host).
TRANSYLVANIA:
The wedding dress of the maidens was a proof that the girls knew to sew and weave, which was a very important condition for marriage. Some garments could also indicate an occupation (the long leather cloak of the shepherds, worn on the shoulders, with the fur on the outside or their hood or the “chimir”, a large belt worn by those who worked in the wood) or the social status (only married women worn kerchiefs).Some garments have a ceremonial role. They are only made on specific occasions. The bride, helped by the girls from the village, was supposed to make the groom’s shirt in a single night. The “plague shirt” also had to be worked entirely in a single night. These clothes are only worn on special moments. At the wedding the most beautiful decorated costume is worn (many times it is especially made for this occasion). In Transylvania there are places where both bride and groom wear wool clothes, no matter the season. The most characteristic elements for the wedding are the bride’s head dress, worn only on that occasion.
At the funeral, the deceased is dressed in the wedding clothes, which are especially kept. The practice of weddings includes the moments when young people separate from their social groups. Additionally, there is the separation of the bride from her parents which is followed by her joining the bridegroom\'s family. Lastly, there is the union of the two young people and the integration of the bride into her new family. (Prior to the marriage is the betrothal which is followed by a long process of acceptance towards the prospective couple by the existing group of those who are already married.) The wedding is a performance with well-established rituals. Poetry, song, dance and ceremonial costumes all have a detailed role in the wedding ceremony. This ceremony begins when the spokesman of the bridegroom comes to the bride\'s home to woo her. During this time, the best men go throughout the village inviting the relative and friends to the wedding. Then, before the closed gates guarded by the bride\'s relatives, the bridegroom\'s best man tells a story. It is the story of a young emperor who gathered a great army and went hunting. While hunting, he saw a fairy and sent his warriors to look for her. Following the fairy\'s trail, they arrive at the bride\'s house. They have been told that there is a certain flower in the garden. This flower cannot bear fruit because of the unsuitable soil in which it grows. The warriors came to pick the flower and plant it in the young emperor\'s garden. There, the soil was known to be good and provide the nutrients enabling the flower to bear fruit. The dress and hairdressing of the bride is also important. She wears a ceremonial costume and flowers in her hair.
In the western part of Transylvania, in Bihor, the bridegroom must pass a test of cleverness. He must solve a series of riddles in order to prove that he is able to be part of the married community.The entrance of the bride into the community of married women is marked by a change of her hair style, and the covering of her head with a scarf. The scarf is a symbol of the married women. This ceremony is also accompanied by a song.Just as for a medieval meal, the wedding meal provides an opportunity for singing, dancing and listening to epic hero songs. Dance forms, especially for the young people, are an essential part of the wedding, as well as the birth ceremonies. One dance, called a "hora" marks the decisive moments of the ceremonial. It is a seal of the marriage contract. The above wedding ceremonials in Romania last for three days. The final day ends with a "dance of masks."
Moldavian marriage is a bouquet of traditions and culture. People sit together and are served with food and wine. Traditional dances also take place. In Moldova, people speak of "wedding parties" instead of just "weddings,” The wedding ceremony itself isn’t the focus of the festivities; it can be a small, understated event leading up to the wedding party proper, usually an all-night celebration.Wedding ceremonies today are held at "casa mare" or House of happiness. The modern ceremony includes the old wedding custom of bowing to the parents as a token of gratitude and respect. The traditional wedding party is magnificent in its arrangement, and intense from the moral ethical point of view. The singing and dancing continues until the daybreak. At dawn everyone sits down for a minute and the bride is given a child to hold in her arms. According to tradition, the bride will then be sure to have a home full of children. The young husband then leads her to the threshold of their house. But before they step over the threshold the couple is showered with grain - a sign of prosperity.
A Moldovian maxim says: "The person who has failed to build a home, to raise a son, to dig a well and to plant a tree has wasted his life". That\'s why the Moldovian villages are so green, the houses are so beautiful and you can see wells along the streets.
MARAMURES:
The wedding in Maramures has a unitary structure and as most important sequences, the asking-in-marriage, the "belief" (engagement) and the wedding. The secondary characters, but with a very important position within the ceremony are the "callers" to the wedding, the bridesmaids, the "socacita" (chief-cook), the "man with the larder", the musicians, the group of the lads and the wedding guests.
Taken as a whole, the ceremony is simple. A trustful person of the groom\'s part is going to the bride to ask her in marriage on the groom\'s behalf (most of the time he gets an affirmative answer only the third time), then the girl\'s dowry is discussed and the date of the engagement is set. The way to the wedding and the wedding itself contain many preparations and ritual objects, each one with its own significance. A great deal of attention is paid to the details in dressing, arranging of the table and most of all, the orders and priorities. There will exist, for example, an order for entering and coming out of the church, in serving the wedding guests, etc.
The rituals preceding every sequence or level represent the picturesque of the traditions. For example, on the night before the wedding (which is called "the flag evening") the "flagman ", accompanied by a group of lads and musicians goes to the groom\'s house with the flag. Here they start dancing a certain ritual "flag dance", with the adequate witty couplets.
The clothing also deserves a very special attention. The bride will wear a white shirt, white skirt with a white apron over it. Over the shirt she will wear a woolen sleeveless sheepskin coat and a woolen thick fleecy overcoat, tied on the waist with a red belt. The groom\'s clothing is even simpler: hempen white shirt, the sleeveless woolen sheepskin coat, and the "large pants" (or in winter time the white woolen stretch pants). The body is tied up with a broad belt with six buckles containing the knife, the tobacco, the pipe, the moneybag and other necessary small things. As a last element, in his case he also wears clinkered boots. His only decorative objects are the hand sewn cuffs, a bag over his shoulders, and he sign for being a groom - the white artificial flowers on his chest.
Emotional scenes for the relatives are the "forgiving" moments - when the bride and the groom ask for forgiveness from their parents on the account of possible former mistakes.
When the groom is going for the bride, the godfather, the "flagman" and a great deal of the wedding guests accompany him. Of all the rituals met with at the wedding ceremony, the most interesting is the one of cleaning the cheeks of the groom and bride by the mother-in-law. As this is the first time she comes to her mother-in-law\'s house the gestures may be considered as a ritual of acceptance of the bride in the new "house" (the "house" house meaning in the mentality of the peasants in Maramures the family/relatives). After the wedding, the entering of the young woman into the new category of married women implies certain beliefs and practices, like the chopping of a wood piece by one hit with an axe (in order to give birth easily) or the spinning of the wool (in order to be a good status host).
TRANSYLVANIA:
The wedding dress of the maidens was a proof that the girls knew to sew and weave, which was a very important condition for marriage. Some garments could also indicate an occupation (the long leather cloak of the shepherds, worn on the shoulders, with the fur on the outside or their hood or the “chimir”, a large belt worn by those who worked in the wood) or the social status (only married women worn kerchiefs).Some garments have a ceremonial role. They are only made on specific occasions. The bride, helped by the girls from the village, was supposed to make the groom’s shirt in a single night. The “plague shirt” also had to be worked entirely in a single night. These clothes are only worn on special moments. At the wedding the most beautiful decorated costume is worn (many times it is especially made for this occasion). In Transylvania there are places where both bride and groom wear wool clothes, no matter the season. The most characteristic elements for the wedding are the bride’s head dress, worn only on that occasion.
At the funeral, the deceased is dressed in the wedding clothes, which are especially kept. The practice of weddings includes the moments when young people separate from their social groups. Additionally, there is the separation of the bride from her parents which is followed by her joining the bridegroom\'s family. Lastly, there is the union of the two young people and the integration of the bride into her new family. (Prior to the marriage is the betrothal which is followed by a long process of acceptance towards the prospective couple by the existing group of those who are already married.) The wedding is a performance with well-established rituals. Poetry, song, dance and ceremonial costumes all have a detailed role in the wedding ceremony. This ceremony begins when the spokesman of the bridegroom comes to the bride\'s home to woo her. During this time, the best men go throughout the village inviting the relative and friends to the wedding. Then, before the closed gates guarded by the bride\'s relatives, the bridegroom\'s best man tells a story. It is the story of a young emperor who gathered a great army and went hunting. While hunting, he saw a fairy and sent his warriors to look for her. Following the fairy\'s trail, they arrive at the bride\'s house. They have been told that there is a certain flower in the garden. This flower cannot bear fruit because of the unsuitable soil in which it grows. The warriors came to pick the flower and plant it in the young emperor\'s garden. There, the soil was known to be good and provide the nutrients enabling the flower to bear fruit. The dress and hairdressing of the bride is also important. She wears a ceremonial costume and flowers in her hair.
In the western part of Transylvania, in Bihor, the bridegroom must pass a test of cleverness. He must solve a series of riddles in order to prove that he is able to be part of the married community.The entrance of the bride into the community of married women is marked by a change of her hair style, and the covering of her head with a scarf. The scarf is a symbol of the married women. This ceremony is also accompanied by a song.Just as for a medieval meal, the wedding meal provides an opportunity for singing, dancing and listening to epic hero songs. Dance forms, especially for the young people, are an essential part of the wedding, as well as the birth ceremonies. One dance, called a "hora" marks the decisive moments of the ceremonial. It is a seal of the marriage contract. The above wedding ceremonials in Romania last for three days. The final day ends with a "dance of masks."
ROMANIA
Romanian wedding traditions include a
parade of guests in traditional costume before the wedding, the carrying of a
decorated pole by the best man, the midnight bridal dance, the presentation of
the wedding gifts, and the bride and groom partaking in bits of bread from an
oversized loaf. The bride's hair is often braided and covered with a crown of
flowers and ribbons. In Greek Orthodox weddings, metal crowns are placed upon
the bride and groom's heads, and their hands are tied together with ribbon
while they share wine from the same cup. Guests might throw sweets and nuts --
or in some regions, corn and water -- at the couple as they make their
departure to wish them prosperity.
Economy, Food rationing, Electricity
Romanian Ration Card
The
1980s: severe rationing and construction of the Palace of the People
Romania
continued to make progress. High rates of growth in production created
conditions for raising living standards of the people. From 1950 to the
mid-1980s, the average net wages increased more than eightfold. The consumption
fund increased 22-fold, and a broad program of building cultural facilities and
housing was carried out. Over 80 percent of the country's population had moved
to new apartments during this period.[15]
Measures
in the mechanization and chemicalization of farming helped to increase the
output of agricultural products. In 1950, more than 300 kg of cereals was
gathered per head of the population, whereas in 1982 this amount increased to 1
ton. Meat production increased from 29.5 to 100 kg.[15]
In
the late 1980s, the United Nations Human Development report classified Romania
as having had high human development. The life expectancy was 71 years,
literacy rate at 96%, and the Real GDP per capita at $3000.[16]
In
the 1980s, Ceauşescu became simultaneously obsessed with repaying Western loans
and with building himself a palace of
unprecedented proportions, along with an equally grandiose neighborhood, Centrul Civic,
to accompany it. These led to a shortage of available goods for the average
Romanian. By 1984, despite high crop yield and food production, food rationing
was introduced on a wide scale (the government promoted it as "a means to
reduce obesity" and "rational eating").
Bread,
milk, butter, cooking oil, sugar, pork, beef, chicken, and in some places even
potatoes were rationed in most of Romania by 1989, with rations being made
smaller every year (by 1989, a person could legally buy only 10 eggs per month,
half to one loaf of bread per day, depending on the place of residence, or
500 grams of any kind of meat[citation
needed]). Most of what was available were export
rejects, as most of the quality goods were exported, even underpriced, in order
to obtain hard currency,
either to pay the debt, or to push forward in the ever-growing pursuits of
heavy industrialisation.
Romanians
became accustomed to "tacâmuri
de pui" (chicken wings,
claws and so on), mixed cooking oil (mostly unrefined, dark, soy oil, of the poorest grade),
"Bucureşti Salami" (consisting of soy, bonemeal, offal and pork lard), ersatz coffee (made of barley), oceanic fish
and sardines as a meat replacement, cheese mixed with starch or flour, and
untasty juices as Cil-Cola orCireşica[citation
needed]. Even these products were in very scarce
supply, with queues whenever such products were available. All quality
products, such as Sibiu and Victoria Salami, high- and mid-grade
meats, and Dobrudja peaches were designated as
"export-only", and were available to Romanians only on the thriving black market.[citation
needed]
By
1985, despite Romania's huge refining capacity, petrol was strictly rationed,
with supplies drastically cut, a Sunday curfew was instated, and many buses
used methane propulsion (they were mockingly named
"bombs"); taxis were converted to burning methanol. Electricity was
rationed to divert supplies to heavy industry, with a maximum monthly allowed
consumption of 20 kWh per family (everything over this limit
was heavily taxed), and very frequent blackouts (generally 1–2 hours daily).[citation
needed] Only
one in five streetlights was to be kept on, and television was reduced to a
single channel broadcasting just 2 hours each day.
Gas and heating were also turned
off; people in cities had to turn to natural gas containers ("butelii"),
or charcoal stoves, even though they were connected to the gas mains. According
to a decree of 1988, all public spaces had to be kept to a temperature of no
more than 16 degrees Celsius (about 61 degrees Fahrenheit) in winter (the only
institutions exempted were kindergartens and hospitals), with some (such as
factories)[citation
needed] kept
at no more than 14 degrees (about 57 degrees Fahrenheit).
All
shops were to close no later than 5:30 pm, in order to preserve
electricity. A thriving black market appeared, with Kent cigarettes becoming Romania's second
currency (it was illegal and punished with up to ten years imprisonment to own
or trade any foreign currency), used to purchase everything, from food to
clothes or medicine. The quality of health care dropped substantially, as drugs
were no longer imported.
Alcohol
The Romanian Revolution of
December 1989 (book)
-says terrorists being treated by
two doctors in Bucharest were supposedly high on drugs and alcohol. It is
supposed that during the revolution, stores that were broken into were robbed
of alcohol.
-No information on alcohol
rationing at this time. Both Sweden and Russia implemented alcohol control or
rationing programs, however I have not yet found any information concerning
rationing in Romania during the revolution
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